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Tens of thousands of devastating diseases are the result of a single minute error in one letter the human genome
While big pharma competes to commercialize CRISPR Cas-9 technologies, scientists compete to develop ever-more versatile and efficient versions of the technology. One result of the competition among scientists is “base editing”, which is predicated upon the same basic mechanism as the standard CRISPR technology but differs because it does not require the DNA to be physically cut. Instead, base editing uses a chemical process to directly convert a single base (letter) of DNA to another without deleting and inserting random bases in the process. Think of base editing as similar to changing one letter in a vast WORD document. The technique allows scientists to edit the body’s genes one letter at a time with exquisite precision. Base editing rewrites single errors in the genetic code instead of cutting and replacing whole strands of DNA. The technique is not a replacement for CRISPR, but a complementary technology for altering the genome in an attempt to correct disease. Converting one letter to another may not sound significant until you consider that there are billions of letters in the human genome, and tens of thousands of diseases can be traced to a single minute error in just one letter in the human genome. Indeed, of more than 50,000 genetic changes currently known to be associated with disease in humans, 32,000 are caused by the simple substitution of one base letter for another. Base editing is significantly more efficient than standard CRISPR systems at making single base substitutions.
DNA molecules as a sequence of letters
Your genes are an instruction manual for your body. Hidden inside every cell in your body is a chemical called DNA. Genes are short sections of DNA, which are the biological templates your body uses to make the structural proteins and enzymes needed to build and maintain your tissues and organs. Genes influence how you look on the outside and how you function on the inside. The DNA that makes up all genomes is composed of four related chemicals called nucleic acids: (i) adenine ‘A’, (ii) guanine ’G’, (iii) cytosine ‘C’, and (iv) thymine ‘T’. A sequence of DNA is a string of these nucleic acids (also called “bases” or “base pairs”). These bases connect in a specific way: ‘A’ always pairs with ‘T’, and ‘C’ always pairs with ‘G’. The letters represent the “alphabet” scientists use to write genetic code. The principal biological function of a base is to bond nucleic acids together. Nucleic acids are complex organic substances present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA. There are some 24,000 genes in the human genome, which are bundled into 23 pairs of chromosomes all coiled up in the nucleus of every one of your cells. There are about 37trn cells in the human body. Only about 1.5% of your genetic code, or genome, is made up of your genes. Another 10% regulates your genes to ensure that they turn on and off in the right cells at the right time.
The November 2017 Protein and Cell study
In the April 2015 edition of the journal Protein and Cell, scientists led by Junjiu Huang from Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou, China, reported research where he and his colleagues used CRISPR Cas-9 to correct abnormal β-thalassemia genes in human embryos without much success. Researchers suggested, “our work highlights the pressing need to further improve the fidelity and specificity of the CRISPR Cas-9 platform, a prerequisite for any clinical applications of CRISPR Cas-9-mediated editing”. In the November 2017 edition of Protein and Cell Huang and colleagues demonstrated that they had enhanced the fidelity of CRISPR and used the new base editing technique for the first time in human embryos to repair a faulty gene that gives rise to β-thalassemia. They suggested that, “their study demonstrated the feasibility of curing genetic disease in human somatic cells and embryos by a base editor system”.
Β-thalassemia
Β-thalassemia is a serious blood disorder, common in China and southeast Asia, which can be caused by a single mutation in the DNA code. The disorder reduces the production of haemoglobin, which is an iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to cells throughout the body. Without treatment, patients with a severe type of β-thalassemia, usually die before age 5. Correcting this mutation in human embryos may cure people with the disorder and also prevent the disease being passed on to future generations.
Innovative approach
Humans carry two copies of every gene, and in many cases both versions have to be “healthy” to avoid disease. Because it is challenging for researchers to find a lot of embryos, which all have a rare double mutation, Huang’s team created a batch of cloned embryos, then took skin cells from patients with β-thalassemia, removed their DNA-containing nuclei, and introduced them into donor eggs that had their own nuclei removed. The eggs then developed into early stage embryos, which carried the β-thalassemia mutation. Despite the study’s success to effectively edit the embryos and repair the mutations it was only about 20% efficient. Huang noted that the base editing technique he and his colleagues used was not uniform across all cells in the embryos, and their endeavours only sometimes repaired one faulty gene instead of 2. This created what is called “mosaic embryos”, which have both normal and mutant cells and result in a patchwork of cells with different genetic make-up and is potentially dangerous.
Huang concluded that more research is required to improve the safety of the study’s base editing approach. Notwithstanding, scientists believe Huang’s research represents a significant advance, and that base editing techniques hold out the potential to treat and prevent a number of serious and debilitating inherited human diseases, which are more common than some people realise. For example, 1 in 25 children are born with some genetic disorder, which includes β-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, genetic blindness, sickle cell anaemia, muscular dystrophy, and Tay-Sachs disease.
The October 2017 Nature study
In October 2017, David Liu, and colleagues from the Broad Institute published a paper describing their latest and improved base editing research in the journal Nature. Liu's group genetically transformed base pairs at a target position in the genome of living cells with more than 50% efficiency, with virtually no detectable ‘off-target’ effects such as random insertions, deletions, translocations, or other base-to-base conversions. The work of Liu and his team is significant because it, “introduced point mutations more efficiently and cleanly, and with less off-target genome modification than a current Cas-9 nuclease-based method, and can install disease-correcting or disease-suppressing mutations in human cells”. This clears the path for scientists to use base editing to address many more single-letter mutations than was previously possible. “What we’ve developed is a base editor, a molecular machine, that is a programmable, irreversible, efficient, and an extremely clean way to correct mutations in the genome of living cells,” says Liu.
Delivery is the challenge
Notwithstanding, Liu suggests that the status of base editing is like Amazon without UPS, its principal delivery agent, “Creating a machine that makes the genetic change you need to treat a disease is an important step forward, but it’s only one part of what’s needed to treat a patient. We still have to deliver that machine”, says Liu, and further, “We have to test its safety, we have to assess its beneficial effects in animals and patients and weigh them against any side-effects. We need to do many more things. But having the machine is a good start.” Liu is hopeful that base editing of DNA and RNA could be used as complementary approaches for a “broad set of potential therapeutic applications.” He and his colleagues are exploring base editing to fix blood and neurological disorders as well as hereditary deafness and blindness.
The October 2017 Science study and the advantages of editing RNA
In a paper published in the October 2017 edition of the journal Science, Feng Zhang, of the Broad Institute who is one of the original architects of CRISPR, and senior author describes a variant of base editing, which acts on RNA in human cells instead of DNA. RNA acts as a temporary genetic messenger within cells and naturally degrades in the body. This means that editing RNA instead of DNA does not result in a permanent change to a person’s genome, and therefore has significant potential as a tool for both research and disease treatment. Zhang’s base editing technique makes a temporary correction of a disease-causing mutation without permanent alteration to the genome. According to Zhang, editing DNA is, “permanent and very difficult to reverse, which poses a safety concern, while editing RNA is not.” Zhang’s approach is a potentially safer option when it comes to gene-fixing therapeutics, although any treatment using the technique would need to be administered repeatedly. But Zhang believes repetition could be an advantage because it allows for a therapy to be “upgraded” as scientific knowledge increases and provides a better understanding of specific disease states. The system can change single RNA nucleotides in mammalian cells in a programmable and precise fashion and has the ability to reverse disease-causing mutations at the RNA level, as well as other potential therapeutic and basic science applications.
Zhang and colleagues made one RNA-editing enzyme into a programmable gene-editing tool. “There are 12 possible base changes you can do,” says Omar Abudayyeh, a researcher at the Broad Institute and one of the paper’s authors. Having edited one, “we’re now thinking about the ways to do the other eleven.” By operating on RNA, Zhang and his colleagues avoid ‘off-target’ effects. “With RNA, you have to think about ‘off-targets’ a little differently.” says Abudayyeh. “If some of the RNA gets edited incorrectly the cell will have at least some amount of the right protein. If things go really wrong, the edit is reversible. You can always remove the system and the RNA will eventually degrade and recycle and revert back to normal,” says Abudayyeh. Liu and his team call their new creation REPAIR. They tested it on human cells growing in dishes and edited up to about 27% of the RNAs of two genes. The researchers did not find any ’off-target’ effects and suggest, “REPAIR presents a promising RNA editing platform with broad applicability for research, therapeutics, and biotechnology.”
Delivery challenges
Liu and other medical researchers have stressed the significant challenges associated with delivering CRISPR technologies, which have yet to be resolved before gene editing techniques become viable therapies. The conundrum researchers face is that your body’s biological barriers, which protect you from diseases are the same barriers that create significant obstacles for the delivery of genetic editors. Let us explain. Your DNA is like Fort Knox gold in that it is extremely well protected. For a harmful agent to access your DNA it first has to get under your skin and into your bloodstream. It then has to travel through your bloodstream without being detected by your immune system, which is comprised of networks of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect your body. One of the important cells involved in your immune system are white blood cells, also called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing agents. Assuming the harmful agent successfully gets past all these biological barriers, it then has to penetrate your cell membrane and find a way to the nucleus of the cell. These biological defences help to keep you healthy by preventing harmful agents penetrating and transforming your cells into disease-making entities. But, they are the same obstacles that prevent scientists getting gene editors to the right place at the right time in the right quantity. Although delivery technologies are improving, Crispr Therapeutics, Editas Medicine, and Intellia Therapeutics, as well as, Casebia are all investing in delivery mechanisms, which remain significant challenges to overcome before gene editing becomes a regular therapy. This is not only a concern for private companies, but also for the public sector. In January 2018 the US National Institutes of Health announced it will be awarding US$190m in research grants over the next six years, in part to “remove barriers that slow the adoption of genome editing for treating patients”.
Takeaways
Researchers have made substantial scientific advances in embryo gene editing technologies, which have significant potential for next-generation therapeutics. Base editing, described in this Commentary, is one advance, which has the potential to provide effective therapies for a range of disorders known to be caused by the mutation of a single letter in a gene, which currently have either little or no means of a cure. This is important because about 66% of genetic illnesses in humans involve mutations where there is a change in a single letter (or base). Notwithstanding, before such technologies become regular therapies in clinics there are major technical challenges, which need to be overcome in the delivery mechanism for these gene editors.
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6 years ago
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